BIOLOGY+-+General+Summary

=Defenses Against Infection=

//Nonspecific defenses include the skin, tears and other secretions, the inflammatory response, interferons, and fever.//

The first line of Defense is the skin. Very few pathogens can go through the skin. They can only go through the mouth, nose and eyes, but they are protected by saliva, mucus, and tears. If bacteria were to penetrate through the skin through an open cut, the second line of defense would be the inflammatory response. //Inflammatory Response: it causes infected areas to become red and paninful. This is however, makes the infected area heal because it sends blood cells to fight the area.// = = = = = = =MUSCLES!=
 * First Line of Defense:**
 * Second Line of Defense:**
 * Antigens** - an antigen is a foreign bacteria that simulates an immune response.
 * Anitbodies -** the antibody is to tag onto antigens and to mark it while the body responds to kill the antigen.
 * __origin__ - Part of muscle that is attached to bone that does not move.
 * __insertion__ - part of muscle that moves
 * __muscle structure__
 * produce movement
 * maintain posture
 * stabilizing joints
 * generate heat - 98.6 degrees
 * Heat dialates the blood vessel so that more blood is brought into the muscle.
 * ATP --> Calcium (salt) - contracts muscles


 * **Types of Mucles**
 * **__Skeletal__ : (somatic nervous system)**
 * attached to bones
 * striated (stripped)
 * voluntary (under my control)
 * multi-nucleate
 * [[image:http://www.uic.edu/classes/bios/bios100/labs/skeletal_muscle.jpg width="426" height="322"]]


 * __**Cardiac**:__
 * walls of heart
 * involuntary
 * uni-nucleate
 * intercolated discs
 * [[image:http://www.cytochemistry.net/microanatomy/muscle/muscle12.jpg width="407" height="277"]]


 * **__Smooth__ : (autonomic)**
 * no striate s
 * involuntary
 * 1 nucleus
 * long
 * peristalsis --> contraction
 * [[image:http://missinglink.ucsf.edu/lm/IDS_101_histo_resource/images/351Blabeled_copy.jpg width="428" height="326"]]
 * [[image:http://missinglink.ucsf.edu/lm/IDS_101_histo_resource/images/351Blabeled_copy.jpg width="428" height="326"]]


 * __muscle contract__ - must have a nerve fiber which releases a nerve hormone.
 * __muscle fiber__ - myofibrin has all organ response

A [|muscle cell] from a [|biceps] may contain 100,000 sarcomeres.[|[1]] The myofibrils of [|smooth muscle] cells are not arranged into sarcomeres. = = =The Nervous System= = = = = = = The nervous system has 2 types of cells: glia & neurons //The sensory division of the peripheral nervous system transmit impulses from sense organs to the central nervous system.//**
 * A **sarcomere** (Greek sárx = "flesh", méros = "part") is the basic unit of a [|muscle]'s cross-striated [|myofibril]. Sarcomeres are multi-protein complexes composed of three different filament systems.
 * The thick filament system is composed of [|Myosin] protein which is connected from the M-line to the Z-disc by [|titin]. It also contains myosin-binding protein C which binds at one end to the thick filament and the other to Actin.
 * The thin filaments are assembled by [|Actin] monomers bound to [|nebulin], which also involves [|tropomyosin] (a dimer which coils itself around the F-actin core of the thin filament) and [|troponin].
 * [|Nebulin] and [|titin] give stability and structure to the sarcomere.
 * How does the central nervous system receive sensory information?

= = Homeostatsis - "remain the same" keeping the body in the "okay" range ex: Body temperature is 98.6 its okay to be 97 or 99 degrees.

Type Responds Some Location Chemoreceptor Chemicals Mouth, nose, blood vessels Photoreceptor Light Eyes Mechanoreceptor Rouch, pressure, Skin, hair follicles, ears, ligaments vibrations, and stretch tendons Thermoreceptor Temperature changes Throughout the body
 * Sensory Receptors**
 * Somatic Nervous System**

//The motor division of the peripheral nervous system transmit impulses from the central nervous to muscles or glands.//**
 * How do muscles and glands receive commands from the central nervous system?

//Somatic Nervous System -// Regulates body activities that are under conscious control, such as movement of skeletal muscles. [ Most of the time you have control of your body but when you are in danger, the nervous system takes over. ]

//Voluntary Control -// Every time you lift your finger or wiggle your toes, you are using motor neurons of the somatic nervous system. //Reflex Arcs -// Somatic nervous system is generally considered conscious control but if you experience pain, you unconsciously react. [ step on a tack with bare foot, you leg recoils before you are aware of the pain.] ( your reflexes are faster than your awareness )

Job is to keel the fluid environment of your cells constant - gives cells nutrients - takes away cells' waste [ Arteries ] [ Capillaries ] [ Veins ]
 * Circulatory System (cardiovascular system)**
 * Pump:** Moves bloods around [ Heart ]
 * Pipes:** Maintain pressure, serve as exchange location, hold onto fluid as a reserve

__ALL__ fluids move from high pressure to low pressure

Heart has the highest pressure and its job is to distribute blood to where there is not a lot of pressure or to where blood doesn't travel to.


 * Ventilation**

Boyle's law says that as pressure increases volume decrease. ex: hold hand onto ribs and breathe. As you inhale your ribs expand and exhale ribs close together.

Pathway of Ventilation: Nasal Cavity - Pharynx - Larynx - Trachea - Bronchial Tree

when you eat food you do two things. You take mono saccharides, amino acids, and Fats from food and the rest you create waste.
 * Digestive System**

1. Make a food "shake" [this is what happens you are eating and your food turns into bits which becomes a "shake"] 2. Turn the "shake" into amino acids, mono saccharides and fats to absorbs.

= = =I. LAWS, HYPOTHESES, & THEORIES=

I-A. Scientific Law

 * Statement of fact meant to describe, in concise terms, an action or set of actions
 * Generally accepted to be true & universal, and can sometimes be expressed in terms of a single mathematical equation.
 * Scientific laws are similar to mathematical postulates. They don’t really need any complex external proofs and are accepted at face value based upon the fact that they have always been observed to be true.
 * Scientific laws must be simple, true, universal, and absolute.

I-B. Hypothesis

 * An educated guess based upon observation
 * It is a rational explanation of a single event or phenomenon based upon what is observed, but which has not been proven.
 * Most hypotheses can be supported or refuted by experimentation or continued observation.

I-C. Theory

 * A theory is more like a scientific law than a hypothesis.
 * A theory is an explanation of a set of related observations or events based upon proven hypotheses and verified multiple times by detached groups of researchers. One scientist cannot create a theory; he can only create a hypothesis.
 * The biggest difference between a law and a theory is that a theory is much more complex and dynamic.
 * A law describes a single action, whereas a theory explains an entire group of related phenomena.
 * A theory is developed only through the scientific method resulting from a series of rigorous observation and testing processes.
 * **Note that theories do not become laws.**

I-D. Differences

 * Both a scientific theory and a scientific law are accepted to be true by the scientific community as a whole. Both are used to make predictions of events. Both are used to advance technology.
 * Theories can be tweaked, but they are seldom, if ever, entirely replaced.
 * Laws only show 1 simple, absolute observation (Law of Gravity shows 1 direction..DOWN; Theory of Evolution has many different Variations

I-E. Development of A Simple Theory by the Scientific Method

 * ** Start with an observation that evokes a question :** Broth spoils when I leave it out for a couple of days. Why?
 * **Using logic & previous knowledge, create a Hypothesis:** Tiny organisms floating in the air must fall into the broth and start reproducing.
 * **Perform an Experiment or Test:** After boiling some broth, I divide it into two containers, one covered and one not covered. I place them on the table for two days and see if one spoils. Only the uncovered broth spoiled.
 * **P** ** ublish for peer-reviewed journal. Publication:** "Only broth that is exposed to the air after two days tended to spoil. The covered specimen did not."
 * **Other scientists read about your experiment and try to duplicate it. Verification: ** Every scientist who tries your experiment comes up with the same results. So they try other methods to make sure your experiment was measuring what it was supposed to. Again, they get the same results every time.
 * **In time, and if experiments continue to support your hypothesis, it becomes a Theory:** Microorganisms from the air cause broth to spoil.

=II. CELL BASICS=

II-A1. Characteristics of Living Things

 * Living things are made of cells.
 * Living things obtain and use energy.
 * Living things grow and develop.
 * Living things reproduce.
 * Living things respond to their environment.
 * Living things adapt to their environment.

II-A2. Organization of Living Things
The levels of organization in the correct order then are: **cells --> tissues --> organs --> organ systems --> organisms**
 * **Level 1: Cells:**
 * Are the basic unit of structure and function in living things.
 * May serve a specific function within the organism
 * Examples- blood cells, nerve cells, bone cells, etc.


 * **Level 2: Tissues:**
 * Are the basic unit of structure and function in living things.
 * Made up of tissues that work together to perform a specific activit
 * Examples - blood, nervous, bone, etc. Humans have 4 basic tissues: connective, epithelial, muscle, and nerve.


 * **Level 3: Organs:**
 * Made up of cells that are similar in structure and function and which work together to perform a specific activity
 * Examples - heart, brain, skin, etc.


 * **Level 4: Organ System:**
 * Groups of two or more tissues that work together to perform a specific function for the organism
 * Examples - circulatory system, nervous system, skeletal system, etc
 * The Human body has 11 organ systems - circulatory, digestive, endocrine, excretory (urinary), immune(lymphatic), integumentary, muscular, nervous, reproductive, respiratory, and skeletal.


 * **Level 5: Organism:**
 * Entire living things that can carry out all basic life processes. Meaning they can take in materials, release energy from food, release wastes, grow, respond to the environment, and reproduce
 * Usually made up of organ systems, but an organism may be made up of only one cell such as bacteria or protist.
 * Examples - bacteria, amoeba, mushroom, sunflower, human

II-B. Original Observers of Living Things: Contributors of Cellular Studies

 * 1. Hans and Zacharias Janssen:** Dutch lens grinders, father and son who produced first compound microscope (2 lenses)
 * 2. Robert Hooke (1665)**
 * looked at a thin slice of cork (oak cork) through a compound microscope & saw tiny, hollow, room like structures
 * called these structures 'cells' because they reminded him of the rooms that monks lived in
 * only saw the outer walls (cell walls) because cork cells are not alive


 * 3. Anton van Leeuwenhoek** (around the same time as Hooke 1680?)
 * looked at blood, rainwater, scrapings from teeth through a simple microscope (1 lens); observed living cells; called some 'animalcules' (some of the small 'animalcules' are now called bacteria)


 * 4. Matthias Schleiden** (1838) German botanist, viewed plant parts under a microscope discovered that plant parts are made of cells
 * 5. Theodor Schwann** (1839) German zoologist, viewed animal parts & discovered that animal parts are made of cells
 * 6. Rudolph Virchow** (1855) German physician stated that all living cells come only from other living cells

**II-B1 Different types of Microscopes**

 * **light microscope -** light first passed through specimen and then through glass lens, which bends light in such a manner that image is magnified.
 * magnifies specimens up to 2,000 times
 * **electron microscope (1939) -** sends beam of electrons through specimen, can be use to examine structures that are too small to bee seen through //light microscope//
 * Two main types
 * 1) Transmission **electron microscope** (TEM)
 * uses a high [|voltage] [|electron beam] to create an image
 * produces image in two dimensional shape
 * 1) Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
 * electron beam does not at any time carry a complete image of the specimen
 * produce images that are good representations of the three-dimensional shape of the sample
 * **compound microscope -** used in high schools, magnify about 400 times under high power.
 * quality of lense determines resolution of microscope.
 * used to strain specimen to make particular structures stand out.
 * common strains include: Lugol's solution, Methylene blue, Wright's strain

II-C. Cells General Description

 * Cells are the basic units of structure and function in living things.
 * New cells are produced from existing cells
 * Cells contain DNA: the biological information it carries
 * They all contain a Cell Membrane
 * Two categories of cells: **Eukaryotes** (nucleus) & **Prokaryotes** (no nucleus) depending if they have a nucleus. (Nucleus is a large membrane-enclosed structure that contains genetic material in the form of DNA and controls many of the cell's activity.)

II-D. General Characteristics of Cell Structure

 * Each cell functions like small city
 * Cells are made up of multiple complex structures, each with a different role in the cell's operation.o
 * In Eukaryotic cells, the structure is divided into 2 major portions: The Nucleous & the Cytoplasm
 * **Cytoplasm** - the portion of the cell outside the nucleus
 * Each major component of plant & animal eukaryotic cells act as specialized organs AKA **organelles** (meaning little organ)
 * Using the city comparison, the following charts shows the functions of the major organelles in Eukaryotic cells:

II-E. Plant vs. Animal Cells Studies

 * 1) Plant cells have a cell wall, but animal cells do not.
 * 2) Plant cells have chloroplasts, but animal cells do not.
 * 3) Plant cells generally have a more rectangular shape because the cell wall is more rigid. Animal cells have a round or irregular shape because they do not have a cell wall.
 * 4) Plants cells usually have one or more large vacuole(s), while animal cells have smaller vacuoles, if any are present.

II-F. Organelles

 * An __organelle__ is a small structure within the cell (organelle literally means 'tiny structure').
 * Examples of cell organelles:
 * the cell wall
 * cell membrane
 * and nucleus.


 * Major functions of organelles :
 * protection/support
 * barrier between cell and its environment
 * building and repairing of cell parts
 * transport of materials
 * storage and release of energy
 * disposal of waste materials
 * reproduction (increase in number)

N animal || *outer layer
 * **ORGANELLE** || **LOCATION** || **DESCRIPTION** || **FUNCTION** ||
 * cell wall || Y plant
 * rigid, strong, stiff
 * made of cellulose

|| *support (grow tall) Y animal || *PLANT - inside cell wall
 * protection
 * allows H2O, O2, CO2 to pass into and out of cell ||
 * cell membrane || Y plant:

|| *controls cell activities || Y animal || *surrounds nucleus Y animal || *clear, thick, jellylike material and organelles found inside cell membrane || *supports /protects cell organelles || reticulum (E.R.) || Y plant Y animal || *network of tubes or membranes || *carries materials through cell || || *produces proteins || || *breaks down sugar molecules into energy || animal - small || *fluid-filled sacs || *store food, water, waste (plants need to store large amounts of food) ||
 * ANIMAL- outer layer; cholesterol
 * selectively permeable || *support
 * protection
 * controls movement of materials in/out of cell (//pumps and channels made of **proteins**//)
 * barrier between cell and its environment
 * maintains homeostasis ||
 * nucleus || Y plant/animal || *large, oval
 * nuclear membrane || Y plant
 * selectively permeable || *Controls movement of materials in/out of nucleus ||
 * cytoplasm || Y plant
 * endoplasmic
 * ribosome || Y plant/animal || *small bodies free or attached to E.R.
 * mitochondrion || Y plant/animal || *bean-shaped with inner membranes
 * vacuole || plant - few/large
 * lysosome || plant-uncommon

animal-common || *small, round, with a membrane || *breaks down larger food molecules into smaller molecules N animal || *green, oval usually containing chlorophyll (green pigment) || *uses energy from sun to make food for the plant (photosynthesis) ||
 * digests old cell parts ||
 * chloroplast || Y plant
 * endocytosis ||  ||   ||   ||

=III. CELL **TRANSPORT**=

III-A. Description of Cell Transport

 * 2 WAYS materials move IN & OUT of cells
 * Passive Transport or
 * Active transport.


 * **Passive transport** includes __**diffusion**__ and __**osmosis**__
 * Molecules tend to move from crowded to less crowded in order to achieve a balance or to reach homeostasis.
 * The cell membrane is **selectively permeable** which allows the movement of substances, especially oxygen, water, food molecules, carbon dioxide, and waste products, into or out of the cell.

III-B. Passive Transport

 * Movement of molecules from a more crowded to a less crowded area WITHOUT the use of energy.
 * Movement occurs when there are unequal concentrations of a substance inside and outside of the cell.

2. Osmosis: **difusion of water through a membrane **
 * 1. Diffusion:** movement of molecules from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration.

III-C. Active Transport

 * Movement of molecules from a less crowded to a more crowded area WITH the use of energy.
 * Molecules are "carried" into or out of the cell using some of the cell's energy.

2. Osmosis: **difusion of water through a membrane **
 * 1. Diffusion:** movement of molecules from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration.


 * Molecules constantly move and collide with one another.
 * OSMOSIS**
 * 1) **isotonic** -is the solution where the solute concentration of the water is the same as that inside the cell; therefore,the amount of water that leaves is the equal to the amount that enters
 * 2) **hypertonic** - is the solution where the solute is more concentrated outside the cell than inside it; therefore, water leaves cell due to osmosis, moving from high water/low-particle concentration to low water/high-particle concentration. resulting → cell shrinks.
 * 3) **hypotonic** - is the solution when the solute concentration outside the cell is lower than that inside the cell; therefore, water flows into the cell (again high h20/low-particle concentration to low h2o/high-particle concentration.) if flow continues long enough, cell will burst.


 * **General Structure** **:  is surrounded by a membrane which is similar in structure to the plasma or cell membrane. **
 * **Nuclear pores or holes occur at intervals along the membrane. **
 * **These holes provide a way for the nucleus to communicate with the cytoplasm. **
 * **Substances pass in and out of the nucleus through these openings **
 * **Components of Nucleus:**
 * 1) **Nuclear Envelop**
 * 2) **Chromatin**
 * 3) **Nucleolus**
 * 4) **Nucleoplasm**

** B8-i: Nuclear Envelop **

 * **Function**: selectively permeable to control movement in or out
 * **Structure**:
 * contains 2 unit membranes with fluid-filled space
 * present nuclear pores
 * outer membrane may be continuous with endoplasmic reticulum

** B8-ii: Chromatin **

 * **Function**: Contains instructions that control cells metabolism and heredity
 * **Structure**: composed of long thin strands of DNA

>>

=IV. Matter and Atom Basic=

IV-A. Contribution of the discovery of the Atom



 * **Democritus** (BC 400) and the “Atomists” debate the “four elements (fire, water, earth, and air).
 * Concluded: object could not be cut in half again and again indefinitely.
 * Decided: sooner or later the object would become so small that it could not be divided again.
 * Called this indivisible invisible particle an “Atom”. (Atom is the Greek work meaning “not to be cut” or “indivisible”).


 * **John Dalton** (1803), an English meteorologist, used his knowledge of gases in the atmosphere as a model for the atom. He is given credit for proposing the first “Atomic Theory”:
 * Elements composed of atoms.
 * Indivisible and invisible particles.
 * same element are the same: different elements are different.
 * Compounds formed by two or more atoms joined together.


 * **J. Jospeh Thomson** (1897) an English scientist, discovered atom has negatively charged particles.
 * Concluded: would also have to be positively charged particles to balance out the negatively charged particles in the atom, but could never find them.


 * **Ernest Rutherford** (1908), an English physicist, first to observe protons.
 * Concluded that an atom must be mostly empty space with a small dense positively charged particle in the center surrounded by negatively charged electrons.


 * **Niels Bohr** (1913) a Danish Scientist, proposed an improved model of the atom wherein the electrons orbit around the nucleus; like miniture solar system.


 * **James Chadwick** (1932) is credited with the discovery of neutrons.


 * **Werner Heisenberg** (1926), a German Physicist, showed that the position of an electron can never be precisely known and that electron orbits the nucleus.

IV-B. Atoms

 * Basic building blocks of matter that make up everyday objects.
 * Are made up of three particles:
 * **protons -** positive charge (+)
 * **neutrons** [[image:file:///C:/Users/Lan-Anh/AppData/Local/Temp/moz-screenshot-9.png]]- neutural (0)
 * **electrons -** negative charge (-)
 * [[image:atom_struct1.gif]]


 * The **protons** and **neutrons** are always in the center of the **atom**, called the **nucleus**.
 * The **electrons** are always found whizzing around the center in areas called **orbitals**.
 * A normal atom is called a neutral atom.
 * An atom with a number of electrons equal to the **atomic number**.

IV-C. ISOTOPES

 * Is an atoms with same number of protons (same element) but different number of neutrons (different mass)
 * Is an atom that is missing a neutron or has an extra **neutron.**

IV-D.COMPOUND BASIC & BONDING

 * **Electrovalence** is just another word for something that has given up its electron and become an ion.
 * **Valence** is a measure of how much an atom wants to bond with other atoms.
 * **Compounds** are groups of two or more elements that are bonded together.
 * Two main types of Bond: **cornvalent** and **electrovalent/ionic bonds**
 * **Covalent bond** - electrons are shared between another atom.
 * **Ionic bonds****-** electrons are given up to another atom.

IV-E. Water Molecules (H2O)

 * In each water molecule, the oxygen atom attracts electrons.
 * This results in a partial negative charge on the oxygen atom, and a partial + charge on the hydrogen atoms.
 * [[image:water_molecule.jpg width="312" height="212"]]

IV-F. Solutions

 * Solutions are groups of molecules that are mixed up in a completely even distribution.
 * A simple solution is two substances that are going to be combined.
 * A **solute** is the substance to be dissolved (sugar).
 * The **solvent** is the one doing the dissolving (water).
 * Note, there is usually **more solvent** than solute.

=V. Basics of Bio- Chemistry=

V-A. pH Balance

 * **pH** is a measure of the [|acidity] or [|basicity] of a [|solution].
 * **pH** balance of 7 and lower is considered a **acid.**
 * **pH** balance of higher than 7 is considered a **base**.
 * [[image:file/view/PH_scale.png width="371" height="349"]][[image:PH_scale.png width="389" height="366"]]

V-B. Nucleic Acid

 * nucleic acids are the building blocks of living organisms
 * these [|molecules] carry [|genetic information] or form structures within [|cells].
 * Most common nucleic acid: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid)
 * Nucleic acids were first discovered by **[|Friedrich Miescher]** in 1871


 * V-BI. MONOMERS **
 * mono meaning "one"
 * is a small [|molecule] that may become [|chemically] [|bonded] to other monomers to form a [|polymer]
 * Natural **monomers** include:
 * **Amino acids**
 * **Nucleotides**
 * **glucose**


 * Monomers nucleotide for DNA are:
 * **thymine**
 * **cytocine**
 * **adenine**
 * **guanine**
 * **uracil**

**V-BII. PROTEINS**
 * proteins are the ‘building blocks of life’ with which all life is made.
 * the human body is about 45% protein.
 * **FUNCTION OF PROTEIN**
 * Required for building and repair of body tissues (including muscle)
 * Enzymes, hormones, and many immune molecules are proteins
 * responsible for movement
 * specialized proteins involved in defending the body from antigens (foreign invaders)
 * storage of amino acids
 * Enzymes, hormones, and many immune molecules are proteins
 * Essential body processes such as water balancing, nutrient transport, and muscle contractions require protein to function.
 * Protein is a source of energy.
 * Protein helps keep skin, hair, and nails healthy


 * Essential body processes such as water balancing, nutrient transport, and muscle contractions require protein to function.

**V-BIII. ENZYMES**
 * Enzymes are the biological substance (proteins) that act as **catalysts** and help complex reactions occur everywhere in life.
 * Enzymes work in a similar way (locks and keys).
 * Enzymes complete very specific jobs and do nothing else.
 * 4-steps process to an enzyme working
 * Substrate is biological molecule that enzyme will attack.
 * Enzyme grabs onto substrate at active site; that is a specially shaped area of the enzyme that fits around substrate. The active site is the keyhole of the lock.
 * A process, catalysis-is when the substrate is changed. It could be broken down or combined with another molecule to make something new.
 * enzyme lets go, returns to normal, & ready to do another reaction. substrate is no longer the same and is now called the product.
 * There are many factors that can regulate enzyme activity, including temperature, **activators**, pH levels, and **inhibitors**.

**ENDOCYTOSIS vs. EXOCYTOSIS**



= VI- Cellular Respiration =
 * VI-A. UNICELLULAR ORGANISM vs. MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS **
 * Unicellular organisms are made up of one cell which can preform all functions of life.
 * list of unicellular organisms
 * Bacteria
 * Amoeba
 * protozia
 * viruses
 * diatoms
 * Multicellular organisms consist of multiple cells which have differentiated and perform specialized functions.
 * list of multi-cellular organisms
 * **human**
 * **plants**
 * **fungi**
 * **animals**

VI.B Stages of Cellular Respiration
*Fermentation - an Alternative to Cellular Respiration
 * process by which food is broken down the body's cells to produce energy, in the form of ATP molecules.
 * There are three main stages of cellular respiration:
 * 1) **glycolysis -** "Sugar-breaking"
 * takes place in the cytoplasm of the ceLL
 * 6-carbon sugar (glucose) is broken down into 2 molecules of a 3-carbon molecule called pyruvate, change is accompanied by a net gain of 2 ATP molecules and 2 NADH molecules.
 * During glycolysis, 1 molecule of glucose, & 6 carbon-compound ---> 2 molecules of pryruvic acid, a 3-carbon compound
 * The **cells** get a net gain of 2ATP for every glucose that enters the glycolysis.
 * 1) **Krebs Cycle,**
 * As pyruvate is being shuttled from the cytosol to the interior of the mitochondrion
 * 1) **Electron Transport Chain (ETC).**
 * electron transport chain is a network of electron-carrying proteins located in the inner membrane of the mitochondrion.

VI.C - FORMULA OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION

 * C6H12O6 + 6O2 --> 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
 * glucose + oxygen --> carbon dioxide + water + energy

GENETICS
**Gel electrophoresis**, 170
 * is a technique used for the separation of (DNA), (RNA), or [|protein] [|molecules] using an electric field applied to a gel matrix
 * Smaller fragments move faster during agarose gel electrophoresis.
 * When the electricity is applied, the positive charge is at the far end of the gel, away from the wells. DNA is negatively charged and will thus migrate through the gel toward the positive charge (cathode).
 * The gel looks solid, but it is in actuality very porous. The **shorter fragments** of DNA are **more easily able to maneuver** themselves around the gel molecules in the matrix through the porous spaces, compared to the longer fragments.

**DNA ligase, proteins** , 176
 * **DNA ligase** is a special type of [|ligase] that can link together two [|DNA] strands that have double-strand break (a break in both complementary strands of DNA).
 * The alternative, a single-strand break, is fixed by a different type of DNA ligase using the [|complementary strand] as a template but still requires DNA ligase to create the final [|phosphodiester bond] to fully repair the DNA.
 * The mechanism of DNA ligase is to form two [|covalent] [|phosphodiester bonds] between [|3' hydroxyl ends] of one [|nucleotide] with the [|5' phosphate end] of another. ATP is required for the ligase reaction. A pictorial example of how a ligase works (with [|sticky ends]):


 * Genetic engineering, 179**
 * **Genetic engineering**, **[|recombinant DNA] technology**, **genetic modification/manipulation (GM)** and **gene splicing** are terms that apply to the direct manipulation of an [|organism]'s [|genes]

**Plasmids and Recombinant DNA**


 * **Recombinant DNA** refers to a collection of techniques for creating (and analyzing) DNA molecules that contain DNA from two **unrelated organisms**. (182)
 * One of the DNA molecules is typically a bacterial or viral DNA that is capable of accepting another DNA molecule; this is called a vector DNA.
 * The other DNA molecule is from an organism of interest, which could be anything from a bacterium to a whale, or a human.
 * Combining these two DNA molecules allows for the replication of many copies of a specific DNA. These copies of DNA can be studied in detail, used to produce valuable proteins, or used for gene therapy or other applications.

**YEASTS**

**Process of determining diseases in pregnancy**
 * prenatal detection of chromosomal abnormalities is accomplished chiefly by **__amniocentesis__**.
 * thin needle inserted in amniotic fluid surrounding the fetus (term applied to unborn baby after 1st trimester)
 * analyzed to detect biochemical or chromosomal disorder. (genetic testing, 185)